History of France

Few White countries have a bloodier history than France. Millions of White Frenchmen and Frenchwomen have been slaughtered in the name of war, adventure, God and even natural disasters.

The name France comes from the Latin, Francia meaning land of the Franks or Frankland.

The Neanderthals, a primitive humanoid, occupied France about 200,000 years ago and died out about 30,000 years ago. They were most likely out competed by the modern humans during a period of extreme cold.

Covering large parts of modern day France, Belgium, and northwest Germany, Gaul was inhabited by many Celtic tribes whom the Romans referred to as Gauls and who spoke an indo-European language known as the Gaulish language. These Celts founded cities such as Lutetia Parisiorum (Paris) and Burdigala (Bordeaux). Long before any Roman settlements, the Greeks settled Provence and the Phoenicians settled Marseille and Nice.

It was a Carthaginian commander, the successor of the Phoenicians, while fighting the Romans, that recruited Gaulish mercenaries causing the Romans start their takeover of Gaul in 121 BC. Julius Caesar was successful in conquering all of Gaul in 51 BC. It is said that while he was away from Rome during his campaigns one of his reasons for being gone was to prove to skeptical scholars back home that Britain really existed.

Gaul was divided into several provinces and the people displaced. One of the results of this was the loss of the Gaulish language.

Aurochs on a cave painting in Lascaux, France

Standing stones in the Kermario alignment

3,000 prehistoric stones around the French village of Carnac

in Brittany erected by the pre-Celtic people

Gaul warrior wearing Roman clothing

1st century BC

Gauls became better integrated with the Roman Empire with the passage of time and by 274 the Gallic Empire effectively ended after the Germanic tribes, the Franks and the Alamanni, gained victory over them. The Goths and Vandals appear around 400. These same Goths had sacked Rome in 410 and the Roman Empire had difficulty in responding to all the raids by the various tribes. In an attempt to maintain control, the Romans used these tribes against each other. First the Huns, united by Attila, and then the Visigoths against the Huns. In 451 the Romans and Goths defeated Attila.

It's during the 5th century that the Visigoths rule a large kingdom in southern France and act as allies of Rome. But in 475 a Visigothic king, Euric, declares his independence and extends his own territory. But in 507 his son is defeated by Clovis, king of the Franks and the territory of the Visigoths is reduced to a coastal strip from the Pyrenees to the Rhone.

The Franks provide the dynasty which can be seen as the first royal house of France. They originated from one of the Germanic tribes and the word France derives from that. The dynasty is called Merovingian from Merovech, a leader of the tribe in the mid-5th century. The fortunes of the Franks begins with Merovingian's grandson, Clovis.

Clovis I, leader of the Salian Franks, inherits the crown when is is only fifteen, about 481. He unites most of Gaul under his rule in 486. In 496 he adopted Christianity which gave him greater legitimacy and power over his Christian subjects and in 507 he annexed more areas into his Frankish kingdom. Clovis made Paris his capital and his reign is a turning point in European history.

After the death of Clovis, in 511, his kingdom was divided between his four sons. Attempting to give equal inheritance will eventually weaken the Merovingian realm, but for now the expansion continues. Burgundy is annexed in 534. But gradually three separate kingdoms emerge within the wider Frankish realm. The original tribal territories, approximating to modern Belgium and northeast France, becomes known as Austrasia. The lands acquired by Clovis in central France are called Neustria. And Burgundy retains its own name and identity.

For the next two centuries after the death of Clovis these kingdoms are nominally ruled by his descendants. At times rulers are strong enough to unite the whole realm under central control, such as Clotaire II and his son Dagobert I. But after the death of Dagobert the Frankish kings gradually lose power to their own lieutenants, the mayors of the palace.

In the Roman empire large households were run by an official known as major domus (mayor of the house). The Frankish kings adapt this system, calling their chief administrative officer major palatii, the mayor of the palace. Unfortunately, most officials are not content with their duties and attempt to enlarge their power and the mayors of the palace were no exception. They gradually added to their domestic duties to include the roles of tutor to royal princes, adviser to the king on matters of policy and eventually even commander of the royal army. Finally by the mid 7th century the usual conflict between Austrasia, Neustria and Burgundy evolves into a power struggle and outright warfare between the mayors of the respective palaces.

In 687, for the first time, one mayor controls all three kingdoms. He is Pepin II. Pepin's only male descendants at his death are legitimate grandsons and an illegitimate son, Charles. Civil war results, by 727, in victory for Charles. His military prowess brings him the title Charles Martel ('the Hammer'). And from his Christian name (Carolus in Latin) his descendants become known to history as the Carolingians.

Charles Martel wages long campaigns against the Germanic tribes (Frisians, Saxons and Bavarians) who constantly raid his northern and eastern borders. But he has a bigger problem, the Arabs in Spain. They have advanced rapidly northwards and in 732 a Muslim army takes Bordeaux, destroys a church near Poitiers and rides on towards Tours. Charles Martel and his army of Franks defeat the Muslim invaders and end their advance in the west. A few years later they withdraw to Spain and never again threaten Gaul.

The son of Charles, Pepin III (also known as Pepin the Short), decides to replace the new puppet king, Childeric III, in 743. Before doing so he secures the approval of the pope. Such direct involvement in the dynastic politics of Europe marks a significant turning point in the power of the papacy.

The Capetian kings directly ruled only a small area around Paris. The situation became more complicated in 1066 when William Duke of Normandy conquered England. Under the feudal system he was subordinate to the French king. Yet as king of England he was the French king's equal.

Worse the mid-12th century Henry Count of Anjou married Eleanor of Aquitaine. In 1154 he became king of England. Afterwards the kings of England controlled huge parts of France including, Anjou, Maine, Normandy and Touraine.

However in 1204 the French king Philip II went to war with the English king John. By 1206 John had lost Anjou, Maine, Normandy and Touraine. By the time Philip died he had greatly increased the area over which the French kings directly ruled.

The process was continued by his grandson Louis IX (1226-1270) and by the late 13th century the French kings had control of most of France. However the English still controlled Aquitaine and Brittany and Burgundy were still semi-independent.

The last Capetian king, Charles the Fair, died in 1328 and his cousin Philip of Valois became Philip VI.

However Edward III of England claimed the throne because his mother was king Charles the Fair's sister. So in 1337 a long and terrible series of wars began between England and France.

In 1429 a woman named Jeanne D'Arc (Joan of Arc) led a French revival. Joan was a very strange person. She wore men's clothes and she claimed she heard voices. However she must have been gifted in some way because she persuaded the French king to let her lead troops in the battle of Orleans in 1429. The English were besieging the town but they were driven back. The Burgundians captured the unfortunate Joan in 1430. They handed her over to the English who burned her as a heretic in 1431.

However the French fight back continued. By 1453 the English had been driven out of all France except Calais.

The early 16th century saw the Renaissance, the revival of interest in Greek and Roman art and literature, arrive in France. Meanwhile France was torn apart by the reformation. It began in Germany in 1517 but it soon spread to France. Protestants were burned in France from 1523 onwards but the repression grew worse after 1540. Meanwhile in 1541 Calvinism, a new branch of Protestantism, sprung up in France.

Then, in 1562, a group of Protestants were massacred at Vassy. This terrible event led to a series of religious wars.

The worst event during these wars was the St Bartholomew's Day massacre in 1572. On that day as many as 3,000 Protestants were butchered in Paris. Similar massacres took place in other French towns and perhaps another 8,000 Protestants died there.

Then in 1589 King Henry III was assassinated leaving a Protestant, Henry of Navarre, heir to the throne of France. Many Catholics refused to accept Henri, however and he had to fight for his throne. Yet in 1593 he converted to Catholicism and in 1594 he entered Paris. Finally in 1598 he issued the edict of Nantes. this granted the Protestants the right to practice their religion and the right to hold certain fortified towns as security against attack.

In the 17th century the power of the French king grew until by the end of the 17th century France had an absolute monarchy. Absolutism was summed up by Louis XIV when he said 'L'etat c'est moi' (I am the state).

In 1610 Louis XIII became king. Much of his reign was dominated by Cardinal Richelieu. At the beginning of the 17th century French Protestants or Huguenots held their own fortified cities. Louis XIII felt this was a threat to France's internal security and he was determined to absorb them completely into his realm.

In 1618 the Thirty Years War began between several European powers. The war was very expensive and heavy taxes had to be raised to pay for it. As a result there were several uprisings in France.

Meanwhile in 1643 Louis XIV became king of France. He was destined to become one of the greatest French kings and he was known as the 'sun king'.

Early in his reign rebellion broke out. Between 1648 and 1652 there were a series of uprisings called the Fronde. These uprisings were led by angry nobles, keen to protect their feudal privileges from the encroaching power of the king. The government crushed them and restored order. Ironically the end of the Fronde left Louis XIV even more powerful than before.

Then in 1661 Louis XIV decided to do without a principal minister and run things himself. He was helped, until 1683, by a very able finance minister called Colbert. In 1682 Louis moved into a magnificent new palace at Versailles.

Furthermore in 1685 Louis revoked the Edict of Nantes, which granted the Huguenots religious toleration. As a result France lost hundreds of thousands of its most skilled people as Huguenots fled abroad. Louis XIV died in 1715.

The 18th century was a prosperous time for many French people and the numbers of middle class grew. It was also an age of rationalism. Rationalist thinkers such as Voltaire (1694-1778) attacked the power of the Catholic church and also traditional laws and forms of government. Between 1751 and 1772 Denis Diderot (1713-1784) edited the Encyclopaedia, which encouraged rationalist thought. Meanwhile many pamphlets and booklets were written attacking the established order.

In 1756-1763 France became embroiled in the Seven Years War and lost Canada and its position in India.

Then in 1776 the British colonies in North America rebelled. The French were keen to assist the rebels and to get their revenge on the British. France joined the war in 1778 and played a key part in the American victory at Yorktown in 1781. Britain was forced to recognize the independence of the colonies in 1783.

In 1786 the finance minister proposed a new tax on land (with no exemptions for the rich) and a stamp tax. Fearing the parlements would resist the idea, the finance minister persuaded the king to call a Council of notables to discuss the idea. Calonne hoped that if they agreed to it the parlements would not dare to resist.

However things did not go according to plan. The Assembly of Notables was not elected, its members were appointed by the king and they were almost all nobles. Yet when they met in 1787 the notables declared they had no power to accept the plans. Instead they suggested the king call the Estates-General. (This was an elected body that had not met since 1614).

The king dismissed the assembly and in June 1787 he sent the new tax measures to the Paris parlement to register. However, as feared the parlement refused to register. In August it was sent into exile but in September 1787 the king was forced to recall it.

Across France parlements continued to reject the king's schemes and clamoured for the Estates-General to be called. Finally in July 1788 the king gave in. He agreed to call the Estates-General.

However the king was unlucky. The harvests of 1787 and 1788 were poor and bread (the staple food of the poor) was expensive so the people were in an ugly mood.

The Estates-General had not met since 1614. It was divided into three parts. The third estate represented the ordinary people (the vast majority of the population). The second estate represented the clergy and the first estate represented the nobility. However the consent of all three estates was needed to pass a measure. So the nobles or the clergy could veto any measure passed by the third estate.

The third estate thought that was not fair as they represented the vast majority of the people. They wanted the Estates-General to vote as a single unit, with all its members put together. If a majority of all the members voted for a measure it would pass. At that time half of all the members of the Estates-General were in the third estate. So if some members of the clergy and nobility voted with them they could push through reforms.

The Estates-General met on 5 May 1789 and promptly began to argue over how they should vote. Finally the third estate lost patience and in June they declared themselves the true representatives of the people of France. On 17 June they declared themselves the National Assembly. On 19 June the clergy voted, by a narrow majority, to join them.

However the king and his advisors were alarmed. So when the deputies arrived on Saturday 20 June they found their building locked and guarded by soldiers. However the third estate refused to disperse. They met in a tennis court nearby and took an oath not to disperse until the king met their demands. On Monday 22 June the majority of the clergy joined them.

The king prevaricated. Then finally, on 27 June, he caved in. He ordered the three estates to join together and vote as one body. His decision caused rejoicing in Paris. It seemed that the reformers had won.

The king then ordered troops to march towards Paris. The people were alarmed and they searched for weapons to defend themselves. On the morning of 14 July 1789 they seized cannons and guns from the Invalides (a hospital for military veterans). They then surrounded a fortress and prison called the Bastille. The governor was forced to surrender.

To the ordinary people the Bastille was enormously important as a symbol of royal power and arbitrary government.

Prise de la Bastille, by Jean-Pierre-Laurent Houel,
depicting the storming of the Bastille on 14 July 1789

The king was then advised that the army was unreliable. The soldiers might refuse to fire on the people. So Louis backed down from using force. In one stroke the king's authority evaporated.

Following the fall of the Bastille Paris was given a new city government with a man named Bailly as mayor. To preserve law and order in Paris a citizen's militia was formed. It was called the National Guard and it was led by a man named Lafayette.

A wave of unrest then swept rural France. It was known as the La Grand Peur (Great Fear). Rumors spread that the aristocrats had hired brigands to take revenge on the peasants. (At a time when people were anxious and desperate rumors spread quickly). The peasants grabbed arms to defend themselves. When the bands of brigands failed to materialize the peasants turned on their masters.

The peasants had always been burdened with feudal dues to their lords. Now they seized and burned records of feudal dues. In some cases they sacked or burned buildings.

Alarmed the National Assembly decided the only way to calm the situation was to abolish feudal dues as soon as possible. On the night of 4 August 1789 the assembly voted to scrap the feudal privileges of the nobility in France.

On 26 August 1789 the Assembly voted for the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen. It declared that all men are born free and equal. Arbitrary arrest and imprisonment were outlawed. Furthermore in future all appointments to public posts would be open to everybody and would be solely on the basis of ability.

But the economic situation grew worse. The price of bread continued to rise and the ordinary people grew more desperate.

Louis ordered troops to move from the border to his palace at Versailles, near Paris, alarming the Parisians.

On 5 October 1789 crowds of women gathered in Paris and seized arms and cannons. They marched to Versailles and entered a meeting of the National Assembly demanding bread. They also sent a deputation to the king who immediately gave in and accepted all the decrees previously made by the Assembly.

The National Guard marched out to Versailles. Their leader Lafayette, was reluctant to leave Paris unguarded but his men demanded it. When he arrived Lafayette 'requested' the king leave Versailles and come to Paris. However the crowds of ordinary people demanded it. Faced with popular uproar Louis gave in and on 6 October agreed to move to the capital.

Meanwhile the Assembly reformed local government. The old parlements were swept away and new courts were formed. 83 departments replaced the old regions of France. All were run by elected councils.

The French revolution also broke the stranglehold of the Catholic Church. On 4 August 1789 tithes were abolished (until then people had to pay one tenth of their income to the Church). In November the Assembly voted to confiscate land belonging to the Church and pay the clergy a salary (making them state employees).

A committee of the Assembly drew up plans to reform the Church. It decided a pay scale and changed the number of bishops. From then on there would be 83, one for each department. The number of parishes was also reduced.

Furthermore in future parish priests would be elected by district assemblies. Bishops would be elected by departmental assemblies.

These new plans were ready in July 1790 and they were called the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. Naturally many of the clergy refused to co-operate and in November 1790 the Assembly voted to dismiss any clergyman who would not swear an oath of loyalty to the new constitution.

From 1790 France began to split between those who felt the revolution had gone far enough and those who wanted to go further.

Then in 1791 the king made things worse by attempting to flee France. On the night of 20 June he and his family slipped away. However the king was recognized. The royal party was stopped at Varennes. It was now obvious that the king rejected the revolution and would turn the clock back if he could. Louis alienated many people in France.

Nevertheless in September 1791 the new constitution was ready and the king accepted it. The king still kept some powers including the right to appoint and dismiss ministers. Furthermore not all men could vote. The poorest class was excluded but at the time that was normal.

In October 1791 a new assembly called the legislative assembly met. The new assembly had a 'lifetime' of two years. Every two years elections were to be held for a new one.

Unfortunately the king was given the power to veto the assembly's decrees, not permanently but for the rest of the lifetime of that particular assembly, a maximum of two years.

However the French revolution entered a new radical phase in 1792 when war began with Austria in April and with Prussia in May. At first the war went very badly for France leading to fear and recriminations.

Moreover in the Summer of 1792 public opinion hardened against the king. At that time Paris was divided into sections with sectional assemblies. On 9 August they seized power. They joined to form the Paris Commune and they sent national guards to arrest the king. The king and his family took refuge and escaped harm. The king's Swiss guard tried to stop the national guard and were massacred.

The Legislative Assembly then declared that the king was suspended. The Constitution of 1791 (which gave the king an important role) was now unworkable. The assembly then agreed to call elections for a new government, the National Convention, which met in September 1792.

Meanwhile on 17 August 1792 the Commune formed a tribunal to try people accused of political crimes. The first political prisoner was guillotined on 21 August.

Then, in September 1792, massacres of political prisoners took place. At that time the Prussian army was advancing into France. The Parisians were frantic and they began killing prisoners held in jails in the city. Kangaroo courts were set up and thousands of people were killed. The killings became known as the September massacres.

The French revolution had now entered a new phase. The new government, the National Convention, abolished the monarchy. In December 1792 the king, Louis XVI, was put on trial. He was executed on 15 January 1793. Marie Antoinette followed him to the guillotine on 16 October 1793.

Louis XVI

Execution of Louis XVI

Highly realistic portrait of Marie Antoinette done in 1791

Execution of Marie Antoinette

After the execution of the king Britain went to war with France. Increasingly desperate the French government introduced conscription in February 1793.

Meanwhile in conservative parts of France the revolution was becoming increasingly unpopular and conscription was the last straw. Finally in March 1793 the Vendee and parts of Brittany rose in revolt. However by December the uprising was crushed, with appalling bloodshed.

However as well as facing internal revolt the French government was faced with military defeat in early 1793. In April a kind of war cabinet called the Committee for Public Safety was formed.

In June there was another popular uprising in Paris. This time the National Convention was purged. The moderate members (called Girondins) were removed and the extreme revolutionaries (called Jacobins) took control. The French revolution now entered its most extreme phase.

In August the British captured Toulon. On 23 August faced with a dire military situation the government called for the mobilization of the whole nation for war. It was called the Levee en masse.

Meanwhile in March 1793 Watch Committees were formed to monitor foreigners and other suspects. In September 1793 the committees were given much greater powers. From then on anyone who 'by their conduct, their contacts, their words or by their writings' were revealed to be 'supporters of tyranny, of federalism and or to be enemies of liberty' could be arrested. Such a catch-all phrase meant virtually anybody could be arrested and executed.

In the following 9 months at least 16,000 people were executed. (The exact number is not known and it may have been much higher).

Meanwhile the military tide turned. In October 1793 the French army defeated the Austrians at Wattignies. In December 1793 Captain Napoleon Bonaparte recaptured Toulon.

Many Jacobins were deists or atheists and were bitterly opposed to Christianity. In September 1793 a movement called De-Christianization began. The church was persecuted. Churches were vandalized and closed. The church of Notre-Dame was renamed the 'Temple of Reason'.

In October a new calendar was adopted. Years were no longer counted from the birth of Christ. Instead they began on 22 September 1792, the first day of the republic. The year was divided into twelve months with names taken from nature. The seven day week was replaced by a ten day one.

Robespierre grew alarmed as he believed that some form of religion was necessary to an orderly society. He denounced atheism and promoted belief in a "supreme being".

Then on 26 June 1794 the French army defeated the Austrians at Fleurus ending the military threat to France. Many people were willing to support the terror while France was in danger but when the Austrian threat was removed support for the terror ebbed.

Robespierre then made the foolish mistake of threatening members of the National Convention. On 26 July 1794 he made a speech with vague threats against unnamed members. The Convention was thoroughly alarmed. The members now feared for their lives, realizing that Robespierre might arrest and execute any of them. The only way to ensure their safety was to denounce Robespierre and remove him from power. This they did. On 27 July when Robespierre tried to speak he was drowned out with cries of 'Down with the tyrant!'. Eventually the members decreed his arrest and the arrest of his cronies.

However Robespierre fled and on 28 July he called on the Paris National Guard to protect him. However most of the national guardsmen did not turn up. Those who did melted away when it became clear that the National Convention was determined to arrest Robespierre.

Robespierre then tried to shoot himself but he was arrested on 29 July. He was sent to the guillotine on 30 July 1794.

The apparatus of terror was then dismantled. On 10 August 1794 the Revolutionary Tribunal was purged. (It was finally closed in May 1795). On 11 August the powers of the Committee of Public Safety were curtailed. Furthermore thousands of prisoners were released.

In March 1795 many churches re-opened for worship for the first time since October 1793.

The Convention now drew up a new constitution, which was ready in August 1794. France would have a bicameral legislature. Executive power was held by a group of five called the Directory.

Furthermore In October 1794 the National Guard and the sectional assemblies were abolished.

In October 1799 Napoleon returned to France and in November he staged a coup. The French Revolution had ended and a new era had begun. At first Napoleon was made 'First Consul' for 10 years but in 1802 in another referendum the people voted that he should be made consul for life. Then in 1804 Napoleon crowned himself emperor.

Napoleon kept some of the achievements of the French Revolution. Equality before the law was preserved and careers were open to anyone of talent and ability. Their was no return to feudalism or a privileged nobility.

On the other hand Napoleon introduced censorship of the press and even imprisonment without trial. Napoleon also appointed prefects to run the departments and he created a strong, centralized bureaucracy.

He reduced women's rights and reintroduced slavery to the French colonies. Napoleon also made a concordat (agreement) with the Pope in 1801.

Napoleon drew up a new code of laws to govern France. It was published in 1804 and was called the Code Napoleon.

Meanwhile Napoleon's military genius allowed him to dominate Europe. In 1799 Austria, Russia and Britain formed a coalition against France. However Russia left the coalition in 1800. However in 1804 Russia, Austria and Britain formed a third coalition but Austria was crushed at Austerlitz in 1805. Prussia joined the war against France in 1806 but was crushed at Jena the same year. The French and Spanish fleets were severely defeated at Trafalgar in October 1805 ending Napoleon's hopes of invading Britain.

Things began to wrong in 1812. Napoleon's invasion of Russia ended in disaster and in 1813 Prussia joined the war against France. Austria and Sweden also joined and the French were badly defeated at the battle of Leipzig in October 1813.

In March 1814 the allies entered Paris and Napoleon was forced to abdicate. He was exiled to Elba. However in 1815 he returned to France and was welcomed by the people. Yet he was defeated at Waterloo in June and forced to abdicate again. This time Napoleon was exiled to the island of St Helena. He died in 1821.

Napoleon was replaced by Louis XVII's brother Louis XVIII. When Louis XVIII died in 1824 his brother Charles X became king. Charles claimed to rule by divine right and had no intention of compromising with the liberals. Not surprisingly therefore, he provoked an uprising in 1830 and he was forced to abdicate. The Duc D'Orleans was made King Louis Philippe. He reigned for 18 years. Under him the French constitution was made more liberal. More men were allowed the vote (but only the middle classes the workers were still excluded).

Finally in February 1848 a demonstration was held in Paris. Soldiers fired on the demonstrators and triggered a revolution. Louis Philippe abdicated and fled.

To reduce popular discontent the provisional government created national workshops in Paris for the unemployed (some unemployed workers from the provinces came to work in them). However the workers were dissatisfied and they still held demonstrations. In June 1848 the government decided to close the workshops and they ordered the workers to disperse. However the workers refused and they manned barricades in Paris. Eventually government troops crushed the uprising known as the June Days.

Then, in November 1848 the new constitution was published. All men were allowed to vote and there was to be a single elected assembly and a popularly elected president. In December 1848 Louis Napoleon, the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte was elected president.

However the constitution did not allow the president to serve a second term. Therefore on 2 December 1851 Napoleon led a coup. A referendum was held and the people agreed to allow the president to change the constitution. He did so and in December 1852 he made himself Emperor Napoleon III. He was responsible for largely rebuilding Paris. Many wide boulevards were built during his reign. Furthermore new sewers made Paris a healthier city. The building work also provided employment for many of the masses.

In 1870 Napoleon III went to war with Prussia. The French were utterly defeated at Sedan in September. Napoleon was captured and abdicated. He later fled abroad.

A provisional government was formed led by Adolphe Thiers. Meanwhile the Germans surrounded Paris and the inhabitants were reduced to virtual starvation. Finally on 28 January 1871 Paris surrendered. By the peace treaty France lost Alsace-Lorraine. She also had to pay an indemnity and German troops were stationed in northern France until it was paid.

Shortly after the surrender of Paris a National Assembly took control of the government. It met at Versailles. In 1873 Thiers was replaced by Marshal MacMahon, a monarchist. Nevertheless in 1875 the National Assembly established the Third Republic by one vote.

About 1.3 million French soldiers died in the war. Nearly a million men were left disabled. The war also caused great damage to the French economy. Many buildings were destroyed and many domestic animals were killed. Furthermore the French government was left heavily in debt.

In the early 1920s the French economy recovered. By 1924 industrial production had reached its 1914 level and by 1929 it had risen to a level 40% above that. Many foreigners such as Poles, Italians, and Spaniards came to work in France.

Then in 1929 the Wall Street Crash triggered a worldwide depression. It took a long time to reach France but the economy began to slump in 1932.

On 3 September 1939 France declared war on Germany. On 10 May 1940 the Germans entered neutral Holland and Belgium. The British and French rushed armies into Belgium to stop them. However German tanks drove through the Ardennes Forest in northeast France. They then drove to the coast, cutting off the allied troops.

The British army and 140,000 French troops were evacuated by sea. However the Germans now advanced into France. Panic-stricken millions of French civilians fled before them. Finally on 25 June 1940 Petain made an armistice with the Germans.

Then on 10 July 1940 the French assembly granted Petain dictatorial powers. He became head of a new fascist state in southern France, based in Vichy. However the regime was short lived. The Germans occupied southern France in November 1942.

Meanwhile resistance groups formed in France while in England Charles de Gaulle became leader of the French forces still fighting the Germans and eventually of all France.

Then in the summer of 1944 the allies liberated France and de Gaulle became provisional president. However he soon quarreled with a newly elected assembly and he resigned in January 1946. He was elected later as leader of France.

A new constitution was drawn up in 1947. However from the start de Gaulle opposed the new constitution. As he feared it produced a series of weak governments. However in the late 1940s France quickly recovered from the war. By 1951 French industrial production had reached its pre-war level.

De Gaulle was replaced by Georges Pompidou. He was re-elected in 1972 but died soon afterwards. He was succeeded by Valery Giscard d'Estaing.

Although the French economy boomed during the 1960s in the 1970s inflation and unemployment rose.

In 1981 Francois Mitterrand was elected president. Mitterrand was a socialist and under him the welfare state was enlarged and working hours were reduced. However the dream soon turned sour. The French were forced to devalue the France several times in the early 1980s and both inflation and unemployment rose.

By 1986 inflation had fallen and unemployment, though high was stable. Mitterrand was re-elected in 1988. In 1995 he was replaced by Jacques Chirac.

France was one of the founder members of the EU in 1957. In 1999 she joined the Euro, common currency